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The '''Giza pyramid complex''' (also called the '''Giza necropolis''') in [[Egypt]] is home to the [[Great Pyramid of Giza|Great Pyramid]], the [[Pyramid of Khafre]], and the [[Pyramid of Menkaure]], along with their associated pyramid complexes and the [[Great Sphinx of Giza|Great Sphinx]]. All were built during the [[Fourth Dynasty of Egypt|Fourth Dynasty]] of the [[Old Kingdom of Egypt|Old Kingdom]] of [[ancient Egypt]], between {{circa|2600|2500 BC|}}. The site also includes several temples, cemeteries, and the remains of a workers' village.
The '''Giza pyramid complex''' (also called the '''Giza necropolis''') in Egypt is home to the [[Great Pyramid of Giza|Great Pyramid]], the [[Pyramid of Khafre]], and the [[Pyramid of Menkaure]], along with their associated pyramid complexes and the [[Great Sphinx of Giza|Great Sphinx]]. All were built during the Fourth Dynasty of the Old Kingdom of ancient Egypt, between {{circa|2600|2500 BC|}}. The site also includes several temples, cemeteries, and the remains of a workers' village.


The site is at the edge of the [[Western Desert (Egypt)|Western Desert]], approximately {{cvt|9|km|mi}} west of the [[Nile|Nile River]] in the city of [[Giza]], and about {{cvt|13|km|mi}} southwest of the [[Downtown Cairo|city centre of Cairo]]. It forms the northernmost part of the {{convert|16,000|ha|km2 sqmi|abbr=on|adj=on}} [[Memphite Necropolis|Pyramid Fields]] of the '''Memphis and its Necropolis''' UNESCO [[World Heritage Site]], inscribed in 1979.<ref name=":1">{{cite web |url = https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/86 |title = Memphis and its Necropolis – the Pyramid Fields from Giza to Dahshur |website = UNESCO World Heritage Centre |publisher = United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization |access-date = 7 September 2021}}</ref> The pyramid fields include the [[Abusir]], [[Saqqara]], and [[Dahshur]] pyramid complexes, which were all built in the vicinity of Egypt's ancient capital of [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]].<ref name=":1" /> Further Old Kingdom pyramid fields were located at the sites [[Abu Rawash]], [[Zawyet El Aryan]], and [[Meidum]].
The site is at the edge of the Western Desert, approximately {{cvt|9|km|mi}} west of the Nile River in the city of Giza, and about {{cvt|13|km|mi}} southwest of the city centre of Cairo. It forms the northernmost part of the {{convert|16,000|ha|km2 sqmi|abbr=on|adj=on}} [[Memphite Necropolis|Pyramid Fields]] of the '''Memphis and its Necropolis'''.


The Great Pyramid and the Pyramid of Khafre are the largest [[Egyptian pyramids|pyramids built in ancient Egypt]], and they have historically been common as emblems of [[Ancient Egypt in the Western imagination]].<ref>Some medieval visitors, however, viewed them as "the Granaries of Joseph", such as the Spanish traveller [[Pedro Tafur]] in 1436 (Pedro Tafur, ''[http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/tafur.html#ch5 Andanças e viajes]'').</ref> They were popularised in [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic]] times, when the Great Pyramid was listed by [[Antipater of Sidon]] as one of the [[Seven Wonders of the Ancient World|Seven Wonders of the World]]. It is by far the oldest of the Ancient Wonders and the only one still in existence.
Many books and articles written by Egyptologists who worked at the site are freely available on the [http://giza.fas.harvard.edu/ Digital Giza website].
 
Literature on ancient Giza is vast; for an overview with further references, see Manuelian<ref>{{Cite book |last=Der Manuelian |first=Peter |title=Digital Giza: visualizing the Pyramids |date=2017 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-73123-3 |series=MetaLABprojects |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |language=en-us}}</ref> or Lehner and Hawass.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Lehner |first1=Mark |title=Giza and the pyramids |last2=Hawass |first2=Zahi A. |date=2017 |publisher=Thames & Hudson |isbn=978-0-500-05189-4 |location=London}}</ref> Many books and articles written by Egyptologists who worked at the site are freely available on the [http://giza.fas.harvard.edu/ Digital Giza website].


== Maadi settlements ==
== Maadi settlements ==
The earliest settlement of the Giza plateau predates the pyramid complexes. Four jars from the [[Prehistoric Egypt#Maadi culture|Maadi culture]] were found at the foot of the Great Pyramid, likely from a disturbed earlier settlement.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bard |first=Kathryn A. |date=1994 |title=The Egyptian Predynastic: A Review of the Evidence |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1179/009346994791547553 |journal=Journal of Field Archaeology |language=en |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=265–288 |doi=10.1179/009346994791547553 |issn=0093-4690}}</ref> Further Maadi settlement near the site was uncovered during work on the Greater Cairo Wastewater Project.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sanussi |first1=Ashraf el- |last2=Jones |first2=Michael |date=1997 |title=A site of the Maadi culture near the Giza pyramids |journal=Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Abteilung Kairo |volume=53 |pages=241–253|s2cid=192152723 }}</ref> Recent reassessment of the radiocarbon dating puts the Maadi culture's [[Maadi|eponymous settlement]] to {{Circa|3800|3400 BC}}, which is also the likely maximum possible range for the Giza remains.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bajeot |first=Jade |title=Predynastic Maadi in context: the research of the Italian expedition revisited (1977–1986) |date=2017 |publisher=Dipartimento di scienze dell'antichità, Sapienza Università di Roma |isbn=978-88-904240-2-1 |series=Studi di preistoria orientale |location=Rome}}</ref>
The earliest settlement of the Giza plateau predates the pyramid complexes. Four jars from the Maadi culture were found at the foot of the Great Pyramid, likely from a disturbed earlier settlement.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bard |first=Kathryn A. |date=1994 |title=The Egyptian Predynastic: A Review of the Evidence |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1179/009346994791547553 |journal=Journal of Field Archaeology |language=en |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=265–288 |doi=10.1179/009346994791547553 |issn=0093-4690}}</ref> Further Maadi settlement near the site was uncovered during work on the Greater Cairo Wastewater Project.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sanussi |first1=Ashraf el- |last2=Jones |first2=Michael |date=1997 |title=A site of the Maadi culture near the Giza pyramids |journal=Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Abteilung Kairo |volume=53 |pages=241–253|s2cid=192152723 }}</ref> Recent reassessment of the radiocarbon dating puts the Maadi culture's Maadi|eponymous settlement to {{Circa|3800|3400 BC}}, which is also the likely maximum possible range for the Giza remains.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bajeot |first=Jade |title=Predynastic Maadi in context: the research of the Italian expedition revisited (1977–1986) |date=2017 |publisher=Dipartimento di scienze dell'antichità, Sapienza Università di Roma |isbn=978-88-904240-2-1 |series=Studi di preistoria orientale |location=Rome}}</ref>


==Pyramids and Sphinx==
==Pyramids and Sphinx==
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[[File:Pyramids from afar (2).tif|thumb|The complex in 1955]]
[[File:Pyramids from afar (2).tif|thumb|The complex in 1955]]
[[File:On top̠ of Cheops Pyramid.jpg|thumb|View from top of the Great Pyramid to the [[Pyramid of Khafre]]]]
[[File:On top̠ of Cheops Pyramid.jpg|thumb|View from top of the Great Pyramid to the [[Pyramid of Khafre]]]]
The Giza pyramid complex consists of the [[Great Pyramid of Giza|Great Pyramid]] (also known as the Pyramid of Cheops or [[Khufu]] and constructed {{circa|2580|2560&nbsp;BC}}), the somewhat smaller [[Pyramid of Khafre]] (or Chephren) a few hundred metres to the south-west, and the relatively modest-sized [[Pyramid of Menkaure]] (or&nbsp;Mykerinos) a few hundred metres farther south-west. The [[Great Sphinx]] lies on the east side of the complex. Consensus among Egyptologists is that the head of the Great Sphinx is that of [[Khafre]]. Along with these major monuments are a number of smaller satellite edifices, known as "queens" pyramids, causeways, and temples.<ref name="Verner">Verner, Miroslav. The Pyramids: The Mystery, Culture, and Science of Egypt's Great Monuments. Grove Press. 2001 (1997). {{ISBN|0-8021-3935-3}}</ref> Besides the archaeological structures, the ancient landscape has also been investigated.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sheisha |first1=Hader |last2=Kaniewski |first2=David |last3=Marriner |first3=Nick |last4=Djamali |first4=Morteza |last5=Younes |first5=Gamal |last6=Chen |first6=Zhongyuan |last7=El-Qady |first7=Gad |last8=Saleem |first8=Amr |last9=Véron |first9=Alain |last10=Morhange |first10=Christophe |date=2022-09-13 |title=Nile waterscapes facilitated the construction of the Giza pyramids during the 3rd millennium BCE |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=119 |issue=37 |pages=e2202530119 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2202530119 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=9477388 |pmid=36037388|bibcode=2022PNAS..11902530S }}</ref>
The Giza pyramid complex consists of the [[Great Pyramid of Giza|Great Pyramid]] (also known as the Pyramid of Cheops or [[Khufu]] and constructed {{circa|2580|2560&nbsp;BC}}), the somewhat smaller [[Pyramid of Khafre]] (or Chephren) a few hundred metres to the south-west, and the relatively modest-sized [[Pyramid of Menkaure]] (or&nbsp;Mykerinos) a few hundred metres farther south-west. The [[Great Sphinx]] lies on the east side of the complex. Consensus among Egyptologists is that the head of the Great Sphinx is that of [[Khafre]]. Along with these major monuments are a number of smaller satellite edifices, known as "queens" pyramids, causeways, and temples.<ref name="Verner">Verner, Miroslav. The Pyramids: The Mystery, Culture, and Science of Egypt's Great Monuments. Grove Press. 2001 (1997). {{ISBN|0-8021-3935-3}}</ref>  


===Khufu's complex===
===Khufu's complex===
{{main| Great Pyramid of Giza}}
{{main| Great Pyramid of Giza}}
[[Khufu]]'s pyramid complex consists of a valley temple, now buried beneath the village of Nazlet el-Samman; [[diabase]] paving and [[nummulite|nummulitic limestone]] walls have been found but the site has not been excavated.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Shafer |first1=Byron E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cv08amI7lkUC&q=khufu+%22valley+temple%22&pg=PA51 |title=Temples of Ancient Egypt |last2=Arnold |first2=Dieter |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-85043-945-5 |pages=51–52}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Arnold |first1=Dieter |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediaofa00diet/page/126 |title=The encyclopaedia of ancient Egyptian architecture |last2=Strudwick |first2=Nigel |last3=Strudwick |first3=Helen |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-86064-465-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediaofa00diet/page/126 126] |url-access=registration}}</ref> The valley temple was connected to a causeway that was largely destroyed when the village was constructed. The causeway led to the Mortuary Temple of Khufu, which was connected to the pyramid. Of this temple, the basalt pavement is the only thing that remains. The king's pyramid has three smaller [[queens pyramids|queen's pyramids]] associated with it and three boat pits.<ref name="PM">[[Bertha Porter|Porter, Bertha]] and [[Rosalind Moss|Moss, Rosalind L. B.]] ''Topographical Bibliography of Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphic Texts, Reliefs, and Paintings. Volume III. Memphis. Part I. Abû Rawâsh to Abûṣîr.'' 2nd edition, revised and augmented by Jaromír Málek, The Clarendon Press, Oxford 1974. [http://www.gizapyramids.org/pdf_library/porter-moss_III_giza.pdf PDF from The Giza Archives, 29,5 MB] Retrieved 10 February 2017.</ref>{{rp|11–19}} The boat pits contained a ship, and the two pits on the south side of the pyramid contained intact ships when excavated. One of these ships, the [[Khufu ship]], has been restored and was originally displayed at the [[Giza Solar boat museum]], then subsequently moved to the [[Grand Egyptian Museum]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=A team from the Grand Egyptian Museum succeeded in the first trial run conducted to test the vehicles that will be used in the transferring the first Khufu Solar Boat from its current location |url=https://egymonuments.gov.eg/news/a-team-from-the-grand-egyptian-museum-succeeded-in-the-first-trial-run-conducted-to-test-the-vehicles-that-will-be-used-in-the-transferring-the-first-khufu-solar-boat-from-its-current-location/ |date=2019 |website=[[Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities (Egypt)|Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities]] |access-date=8 March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=In pictures: Egypt pharaoh's 'solar boat' moved to Giza museum|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/in-pictures-58088867|work=[[BBC News]]|date=2021-08-07|accessdate=2021-08-07}}</ref>
[[Khufu]]'s pyramid complex consists of a valley temple, now buried beneath the village of Nazlet el-Samman; diabase paving and nummulitic limestone walls have been found but the site has not been excavated.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Shafer |first1=Byron E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cv08amI7lkUC&q=khufu+%22valley+temple%22&pg=PA51 |title=Temples of Ancient Egypt |last2=Arnold |first2=Dieter |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-85043-945-5 |pages=51–52}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Arnold |first1=Dieter |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediaofa00diet/page/126 |title=The encyclopaedia of ancient Egyptian architecture |last2=Strudwick |first2=Nigel |last3=Strudwick |first3=Helen |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-86064-465-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediaofa00diet/page/126 126] |url-access=registration}}</ref> The valley temple was connected to a causeway that was largely destroyed when the village was constructed. The causeway led to the Mortuary Temple of Khufu, which was connected to the pyramid. Of this temple, the basalt pavement is the only thing that remains. The king's pyramid has three smaller [[queens pyramids|queen's pyramids]] associated with it and three boat pits.<ref name="PM">[[Bertha Porter|Porter, Bertha]] and [[Rosalind Moss|Moss, Rosalind L. B.]] ''Topographical Bibliography of Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphic Texts, Reliefs, and Paintings. Volume III. Memphis. Part I. Abû Rawâsh to Abûṣîr.'' 2nd edition, revised and augmented by Jaromír Málek, The Clarendon Press, Oxford 1974. [http://www.gizapyramids.org/pdf_library/porter-moss_III_giza.pdf PDF from The Giza Archives, 29,5 MB] Retrieved 10 February 2017.</ref>{{rp|11–19}} The boat pits contained a ship, and the two pits on the south side of the pyramid contained intact ships when excavated. One of these ships, the [[Khufu ship]], has been restored and was originally displayed at the Giza Solar boat museum, then subsequently moved to the Grand Egyptian Museum.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A team from the Grand Egyptian Museum succeeded in the first trial run conducted to test the vehicles that will be used in the transferring the first Khufu Solar Boat from its current location |url=https://egymonuments.gov.eg/news/a-team-from-the-grand-egyptian-museum-succeeded-in-the-first-trial-run-conducted-to-test-the-vehicles-that-will-be-used-in-the-transferring-the-first-khufu-solar-boat-from-its-current-location/ |date=2019 |website=[[Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities (Egypt)|Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities]] |access-date=8 March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=In pictures: Egypt pharaoh's 'solar boat' moved to Giza museum|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/in-pictures-58088867|work=[[BBC News]]|date=2021-08-07|accessdate=2021-08-07}}</ref>


Khufu's pyramid still has a limited number of casing stones at its base. These casing stones were made of fine white limestone quarried from the nearby range.<ref name="Verner"/>
Khufu's pyramid still has a limited number of casing stones at its base. These casing stones were made of fine white limestone quarried from the nearby range.<ref name="Verner"/>
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{{main|Pyramid of Menkaure}}
{{main|Pyramid of Menkaure}}
[[Menkaure]]'s pyramid complex consists of a valley temple, a causeway, a mortuary temple, and the king's pyramid. The valley temple once contained several statues of Menkaure. During the [[Fifth Dynasty of Egypt|5th Dynasty]], a smaller ante-temple was added on to the valley temple. The mortuary temple also yielded several statues of Menkaure. The king's pyramid, completed {{Circa|2510 BC}}, has three subsidiary or queen's pyramids.<ref name="PM" />{{rp|26–35}}
[[Menkaure]]'s pyramid complex consists of a valley temple, a causeway, a mortuary temple, and the king's pyramid. The valley temple once contained several statues of Menkaure. During the [[Fifth Dynasty of Egypt|5th Dynasty]], a smaller ante-temple was added on to the valley temple. The mortuary temple also yielded several statues of Menkaure. The king's pyramid, completed {{Circa|2510 BC}}, has three subsidiary or queen's pyramids.<ref name="PM" />{{rp|26–35}}
Of the four major monuments, only Menkaure's pyramid is seen today without any of its original polished [[limestone]] casing.<ref name="Verner"/>
Of the four major monuments, only Menkaure's pyramid is seen today without any of its original polished limestone casing.<ref name="Verner"/>


===Sphinx===
===Sphinx===
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[[Khentkaus I]] was buried in Giza. Her tomb is known as LG 100 and G 8400 and is located in the [[Central Field, Giza|Central Field]], near the valley temple of [[Menkaure]]. The pyramid complex of Queen Khentkaus includes her pyramid, a boat pit, a valley temple, and a pyramid town.<ref name="PM" />{{rp|288–289}}
[[Khentkaus I]] was buried in Giza. Her tomb is known as LG 100 and G 8400 and is located in the [[Central Field, Giza|Central Field]], near the valley temple of [[Menkaure]]. The pyramid complex of Queen Khentkaus includes her pyramid, a boat pit, a valley temple, and a pyramid town.<ref name="PM" />{{rp|288–289}}
==Construction==
{{Main|Egyptian pyramid construction techniques}}
Most construction theories are based on the idea that the pyramids were built by moving huge stones from a quarry and dragging and lifting them into place. Disagreements arise over the feasibility of the different proposed methods by which the stones were conveyed and placed.
In building the pyramids, the architects might have developed their techniques over time. They would select a site on a relatively flat area of bedrock—not sand—which provided a stable foundation. After carefully surveying the site and laying down the first level of stones, they constructed the pyramids in horizontal levels, one on top of the other.
For the [[Great Pyramid of Giza|Great Pyramid]], most of the stone for the interior seems to have been quarried immediately to the south of the construction site. The smooth exterior of the pyramid was made of a fine grade of white limestone that was quarried across the [[Nile]]. These exterior blocks had to be carefully cut, transported by river barge to Giza, and dragged up ramps to the construction site. Only a few exterior blocks remain in place at the bottom of the Great Pyramid. During the Middle Ages (5th century to 15th century), people may have taken the rest away for building projects in the city of Cairo.<ref name="Verner" />
To ensure that the pyramid remained symmetrical, the exterior casing stones all had to be equal in height and width. Workers might have marked all the blocks to indicate the angle of the pyramid wall and trimmed the surfaces carefully so that the blocks fit together. During construction, the outer surface of the stone was smooth limestone; excess stone has eroded over time.<ref name="Verner" />
New insights into the closing stages of the Great Pyramid building were provided by the recent find of [[Wadi al-Jarf|Wadi el-Jarf]] papyri, especially the [[Diary of Merer|diary of inspector Merer]], whose team was assigned to deliver the white limestone from [[Tura, Egypt|Tura]] quarries to Giza. The journal was already published,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tallet |first=Pierre |title=Les papyrus de la mer Rouge: papyrus Jarf A et B |date=2017 |publisher=Institut français d'archéologie orientale |isbn=978-2-7247-0706-9 |series=MIFAO |location=Le Caire |language=fr}}</ref> as well as a popular account of the importance of this discovery.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Tallet |first1=Pierre |title=The Red Sea scrolls: how ancient papyri reveal the secrets of the pyramids |last2=Lehner |first2=Mark |date=2021 |publisher=Thames & Hudson Ltd |isbn=978-0-500-05211-2 |location=London New York, New York}}</ref>
===Purpose===
The pyramids of Giza and others are thought to have been constructed to house the remains of the deceased [[pharaoh]]s who ruled [[Ancient Egypt]].<ref name="Verner" /> A portion of the pharaoh's spirit called his ''[[Ancient Egyptian conception of the soul#Ka (vital essence)|ka]]'' was believed to remain with his corpse. Proper care of the remains was necessary in order for the "former Pharaoh to perform his new duties as king of the dead". It is theorized the pyramid not only served as a tomb for the pharaoh, but also as a storage pit for various items he would need in the afterlife. "The people of Ancient Egypt believed that death on Earth was the start of a journey to the next world." The embalmed body of the King was entombed underneath or within the pyramid to protect it and allow his transformation and ascension to the [[afterlife]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.culturefocus.com/egypt_pyramids.htm |title=Egypt pyramids |publisher=culturefocus.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100102205240/http://culturefocus.com/egypt_pyramids.htm |archive-date=2 January 2010 |df=dmy }}</ref>
===Astronomy===
[[File:PyramidsofGiza at night.jpg|thumb|The Giza pyramid complex at night]]
The sides of all three of the Giza pyramids were [[astronomy|astronomically]] oriented to the north–south and east–west within a small fraction of a degree. Among recent attempts to explain such a clearly deliberate pattern are those of S. Haack, [[Otto Neugebauer|O. Neugebauer]], K. Spence, [[Dennis Rawlins|D. Rawlins]], K. Pickering, and J. Belmonte.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gingerich |first=Owen |author-link=Owen Gingerich |title=Plotting the pyramids |date=16 November 2000 |department=News & Views |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=408 |issue=6810 |pages=297–298 |doi=10.1038/35042648 |pmid=11099022 |bibcode=2000Natur.408..297G |s2cid=205010936 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rawlins |first1=Dennis |author-link=Dennis Rawlins |last2=Keith |first2=Pickering |title=Astronomical orientation of the pyramids |date=16 August 2001 |department=Brief Communications |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=412 |issue=6848 |pages=699–700 |doi=10.1038/35089138 |pmid=11507629 |s2cid=4314037 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Spence |first=Kate |title=Astronomical orientation of the pyramids |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/35089140 |url-access=subscription |date=16 August 2001 |department=Brief Communications |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=412 |issue=6848 |pages=699–700 |doi=10.1038/35089140 |s2cid=41061566 |access-date=9 March 2022}}</ref><ref name="DIO Vol 13 No 1">{{cite journal |title=The Great Pyramid: Star Fixed, When? |url=http://www.dioi.org/vols/wd1.pdf |date=December 2003 |journal=DIO: The International Journal of Scientific History |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=2–11 |issn=1041-5440 |access-date=9 March 2022}}</ref> The arrangement of the pyramids is a representation of the [[Orion (constellation)|Orion constellation]] according to the disputed [[Orion correlation theory]].


==Workers' village==
==Workers' village==
[[File:S10.08 Gizeh, image 9936.jpg|thumbnail|One face of the [[Pyramid of Khafre]] at Giza, as seen from Khafre's valley temple]]
[[File:S10.08 Gizeh, image 9936.jpg|thumbnail|One face of the [[Pyramid of Khafre]] at Giza, as seen from Khafre's valley temple]]
[[File:Giza-pyramids.JPG|thumb|Giza pyramid complex seen from above]]
[[File:Giza-pyramids.JPG|thumb|Giza pyramid complex seen from above]]
[[File:Giza pyramid complex 3D flyover.webm|thumb|3D overview of the Giza complex]]
The work of quarrying, moving, setting, and sculpting the huge amount of stone used to build the pyramids might have been accomplished by several thousand skilled workers, unskilled laborers and supporting workers. Bakers, carpenters, water carriers, and others were also needed for the project. Along with the methods used to construct the pyramids, there is also wide speculation regarding the exact number of workers needed for a building project of this magnitude. When Greek historian [[Herodotus]] visited Giza in 450&nbsp;BC, he was told by Egyptian priests that "the Great Pyramid had taken 400,000 men 20 years to build, working in three-month shifts 100,000 men at a time." Evidence from the tombs indicates that a workforce of 10,000 laborers working in three-month shifts took around 30 years to build a pyramid.<ref name="Verner" />
The work of quarrying, moving, setting, and sculpting the huge amount of stone used to build the pyramids might have been accomplished by several thousand skilled workers, unskilled laborers and supporting workers. Bakers, carpenters, water carriers, and others were also needed for the project. Along with the methods used to construct the pyramids, there is also wide speculation regarding the exact number of workers needed for a building project of this magnitude. When Greek historian [[Herodotus]] visited Giza in 450&nbsp;BC, he was told by Egyptian priests that "the Great Pyramid had taken 400,000 men 20 years to build, working in three-month shifts 100,000 men at a time." Evidence from the tombs indicates that a workforce of 10,000 laborers working in three-month shifts took around 30 years to build a pyramid.<ref name="Verner" />


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===West Field===
===West Field===
{{main|Giza West Field}}
The West Field is located to the west of Khufu's pyramid. It is divided into smaller areas such as the cemeteries referred to as the Abu Bakr Excavations (1949–1950, 1950–1951, 1952, and 1953), and several cemeteries named based on the [[mastaba]] numbers such as Cemetery G 1000, Cemetery G 1100, etc. The West Field contains Cemetery G1000&nbsp;– Cemetery G1600, and Cemetery G 1900. Further cemeteries in this field are: Cemeteries G 2000, G 2200, G 2500, G 3000, G 4000, and G 6000. Three other cemeteries are named after their excavators: Junker Cemetery West, Junker Cemetery East, and Steindorff Cemetery.<ref name="PM" />{{rp|100–122}}
The West Field is located to the west of Khufu's pyramid. It is divided into smaller areas such as the cemeteries referred to as the Abu Bakr Excavations (1949–1950, 1950–1951, 1952, and 1953), and several cemeteries named based on the [[mastaba]] numbers such as Cemetery G 1000, Cemetery G 1100, etc. The West Field contains Cemetery G1000&nbsp;– Cemetery G1600, and Cemetery G 1900. Further cemeteries in this field are: Cemeteries G 2000, G 2200, G 2500, G 3000, G 4000, and G 6000. Three other cemeteries are named after their excavators: Junker Cemetery West, Junker Cemetery East, and Steindorff Cemetery.<ref name="PM" />{{rp|100–122}}


{| class="wikitable" align="center"
===East Field===
|+Cemeteries in the West Field at Giza<ref name="PM" />{{rp|47–179}}
! Cemetery!! Time Period !! Excavation !! Comments
|-
| Abu Bakr Excavations || the [[Fifth Dynasty of Egypt|5th]] and [[Sixth Dynasty of Egypt|6th Dynasty]]|| (1949–1953) ||
|-
| Cemetery G 1000 || the 5th and 6th Dynasty || Reisner (1903–1905) || Stone built mastabas
|-
| Cemetery G 1100 || the 5th and 6th Dynasty || Reisner (1903–1905) || Brick built mastabas
|-
| Cemetery G 1200 || Mainly [[Fourth Dynasty of Egypt|4th Dynasty]]|| Reisner (1903–1905) || Some members of [[Khufu]]'s family are buried here; Wepemnefert (King's Son), Kaem-ah (King's Son), [[Nefertiabet]] (King's Daughter)
|-
| Cemetery G 1300 || the 5th and 6th Dynasty || Reisner (1903–1905) || Brick built mastabas
|-
| Cemetery G 1400 || the 5th Dynasty or later || Reisner (1903–1905) || Two men who were prophets of Khufu
|-
| Cemetery G 1500||  || Reisner (1931?) || Only one mastaba (G 1601)
|-
| Cemetery G 1600 || the 5th Dynasty or later || Reisner (1931) || Two men who were prophets of Khufu
|-
| Cemetery G 1900 ||  || Reisner (1931) || Only one mastaba (G 1903)
|-
| Cemetery G 2000 ||the 5th and 6th Dynasty
| Reisner (1905–1906) ||
|-
| Cemetery G 2100 || the 4th and 5th Dynasty and later || Reisner (1931) || G 2100 belongs to Merib, a King's (grand-)Son and G2101 belongs to a 5th Dynasty king's daughter.
|-
| Cemetery G 2200 || Late 4th or early 5th Dynasty || Reisner ? || Mastaba G 2220
|-
| Cemetery G 2300 || 5th Dynasty and 6th Dynasty || Reisner (1911–1913) || Includes mastabas of Vizier Senedjemib-Inti and his family.
|-
| Cemetery G 2400 || 5th Dynasty and 6th Dynasty || Reisner (1911–1913) ||
|-
| Cemetery G 2500 ||  || Reisner ||
|-
| Cemetery G 3000 || 6th Dynasty || Fisher and Eckley Case Jr. (1915) ||
|-
| Cemetery G 4000 || 4th Dynasty and later || Junker and Reisner (1931) || Includes tomb of the vizier [[Hemiunu]]
|-
| Cemetery G 6000 || 5th Dynasty || Reisner (1925–1926) ||
|-
| Junker Cemetery (West) || Late [[Old Kingdom]]|| Junker (1926–1927) || Includes mastaba of the dwarf [[Seneb]]
|-
| Steindorff Cemetery || 5th Dynasty and 6th Dynasty || Steindorff (1903–1907) ||
|-
| Junker Cemetery (East)|| Late Old Kingdom || Junker ||
|}


===East Field===
{{main|Giza East Field}}


The East Field is located to the east of Khufu's pyramid and contains cemetery G 7000. This cemetery was a burial place for some of the family members of Khufu.
The East Field is located to the east of Khufu's pyramid and contains cemetery G 7000. This cemetery was a burial place for some of the family members of Khufu.
The cemetery also includes mastabas from tenants and priests of the pyramids dated to the 5th Dynasty and 6th Dynasty.<ref name="PM" />{{rp|179–216}}
The cemetery also includes mastabas from tenants and priests of the pyramids dated to the 5th Dynasty and 6th Dynasty.<ref name="PM" />{{rp|179–216}}


{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto; width: 75%" cellpadding="5" border="1" align="center" |
===Cemetery GIS===
|+Cemeteries G 7000 – Royalty<ref name="PM" />{{rp|179–208}}
!|Tomb number!! Owner!! Comments
|-
| G 7000 X || Queen [[Hetepheres I]]|| Mother of [[Khufu]]
|-
| G 7010 ||[[Nefertkau I]]|| Daughter of [[Sneferu]], half-sister of Khufu
|-
| G 7060 ||[[Nefermaat I]]|| Son of [[Nefertkau I]] and Vizier of [[Khafre]]
|-
| G 7070 ||[[Sneferukhaf]]|| Son of [[Nefermaat II]]
|-
| G 7110–7120 ||[[Kawab]] and [[Hetepheres II]]|| Kawab was the eldest son of Khufu
|-
| G 7130–7140 ||[[Khufukhaf I]] and [[Nefertkau II]]|| King's Son and Vizier and his wife
|-
| G 7210–7220 ||[[Djedefhor]]|| King's Son of Khufu and Meritites
|-
| G 7350 ||[[Hetepheres II]]|| Wife of [[Kawab]] and later wife of [[Djedefre]]
|-
| G 7410–7420 ||[[Meresankh II]] and [[Horbaef]]|| Meresankh was a king's daughter and king's wife
|-
| G 7430–7440 ||[[Minkhaf I]]|| Son of Khufu and [[Vizier (Ancient Egypt)|Vizier]] of [[Khafre]]
|-
| G 7510 ||[[Ankhhaf]]|| Son of [[Sneferu]] and Vizier of [[Khafre]]
|-
| G 7530–7540 ||[[Meresankh III]]|| Daughter of [[Kawab]] and [[Hetepheres II]], wife of [[Khafre]]
|-
| G 7550 ||[[Duaenhor]]|| Probably son of [[Kawab]] and thus a grandson of Khufu
|-
| G 7560 || Akhethotep and [[Meritites II]]|| Meritites is a daughter of Khufu
|-
| G 7660 ||[[Kaemsekhem]]|| Son of Kawab, a grandson of Khufu, served as Director of the Palace
|-
| G 7760 ||[[Mindjedef]]|| Son of Kawab, a grandson of Khufu, served as Treasurer
|-
| G 7810 ||[[Djaty]]|| Son of Queen [[Meresankh II]]
|}


===Cemetery GIS===
{{main|Cemetery GIS}}


This cemetery dates from the time of [[Menkaure]] (Junker) or earlier (Reisner), and contains several stone-built mastabas dating from as late as the [[Sixth Dynasty of Egypt|6th Dynasty]]. Tombs from the time of [[Menkaure]] include the mastabas of the royal chamberlain Khaemnefert, the King's son Khufudjedef (master of the royal largesse), and an official named Niankhre.<ref name="PM" />{{rp|216–228}}
This cemetery dates from the time of [[Menkaure]] (Junker) or earlier (Reisner), and contains several stone-built mastabas dating from as late as the [[Sixth Dynasty of Egypt|6th Dynasty]]. Tombs from the time of [[Menkaure]] include the mastabas of the royal chamberlain Khaemnefert, the King's son Khufudjedef (master of the royal largesse), and an official named Niankhre.<ref name="PM" />{{rp|216–228}}


===Central Field===
===Central Field===
{{main|Central Field, Giza}}


The Central Field contains several burials of royal family members. The tombs range in date from the end of the [[Fourth Dynasty of Egypt|4th Dynasty]] to the [[Fifth Dynasty of Egypt|5th Dynasty]] or even later.<ref name="PM" />{{rp|230–293}}
The Central Field contains several burials of royal family members. The tombs range in date from the end of the [[Fourth Dynasty of Egypt|4th Dynasty]] to the [[Fifth Dynasty of Egypt|5th Dynasty]] or even later.<ref name="PM" />{{rp|230–293}}
{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto; width: 75%" cellpadding="5" border="1" align="center" |
|+Central Field – Royalty<ref name="PM" />{{rp|230–293}}
!|Tomb number!! Owner!! Comments
|-
| G 8172 (LG 86) ||[[Nebemakhet]]|| Son of [[Khafre]], served as vizier
|-
| G 8158 (LG 87) ||[[Nikaure]]|| Son of [[Khafre]] and Persenet, served as vizier
|-
| G 8156 (LG 88) ||[[Persenet]]|| Wife of [[Khafre]]
|-
| G 8154 (LG 89) ||[[Sekhemkare (Vizier)|Sekhemkare]]|| Son of [[Khafre]] and [[Hekenuhedjet]]
|-
| G 8140 || Niuserre || Son of [[Khafre]], Vizier in the 5th Dynasty
|-
| G 8130 || Niankhre || King's Son, probably 5th Dynasty
|-
| G 8080 (LG 92) || Iunmin || King's Son, end of 4th Dynasty
|-
| G 8260 || Babaef || Son of [[Khafre]], end of 4th Dynasty
|-
| G 8466 ||[[Iunre]]|| Son of [[Khafre]], end of 4th Dynasty
|-
| G 8464 ||[[Hemetre]]|| Probably daughter of [[Khafre]], end of 4th Dynasty or 5th Dynasty
|-
| G 8460 ||[[Ankhmare]]|| King's son and vizier, end of 4th Dynasty
|-
| G 8530 ||[[Rekhetre]]|| King's daughter (of [[Khafre]]) and Queen, end of 4th Dynasty or 5th Dynasty
|-
| G 8408 ||[[Bunefer]]|| King's daughter and Queen, end of 4th Dynasty or 5th Dynasty
|-
| G 8978 ||[[Khamerernebty I]]|| King's daughter and Queen, middle to end of 4th Dynasty. Also known as the Galarza Tomb
|}


Tombs dating from the [[Sais, Egypt|Saite]] and later period were found near the causeway of Khafre and the Great Sphinx. These tombs include the tomb of a commander of the army named Ahmose and his mother Queen Nakhtubasterau, who was the wife of [[Pharaoh]] [[Amasis II]].<ref name="PM" />{{rp|289–290}}
Tombs dating from the [[Sais, Egypt|Saite]] and later period were found near the causeway of Khafre and the Great Sphinx. These tombs include the tomb of a commander of the army named Ahmose and his mother Queen Nakhtubasterau, who was the wife of [[Pharaoh]] [[Amasis II]].<ref name="PM" />{{rp|289–290}}
Line 289: Line 144:


During the [[Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt|21st Dynasty]], the Temple of Isis Mistress-of-the-Pyramids was reconstructed. During the [[Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt|26th Dynasty]], a stela made in this time mentions Khufu and his Queen [[Henutsen]].<ref name="PM" />{{rp|18}}
During the [[Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt|21st Dynasty]], the Temple of Isis Mistress-of-the-Pyramids was reconstructed. During the [[Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt|26th Dynasty]], a stela made in this time mentions Khufu and his Queen [[Henutsen]].<ref name="PM" />{{rp|18}}
==Division of the 1903–1905 excavation of the Giza Necropolis==
In 1903, rights to excavate the West Field and Pyramids of the Giza Necropolis were divided by three institutions from Italy, Germany, and the United States of America.
===Background===
Prior to the division of the Giza Plateau into three institutional concessions in 1903, amateur and private excavations at the Giza Necropolis had been permitted to operate. The work of these amateur archaeologists failed to meet high scientific standards. Montague Ballard, for instance, excavated in the Western Cemetery (with the hesitant permission of the Egyptian Antiquities Service) and neither kept records of his finds nor published them.<ref>P. D. Manuelian, Walking Among Pharaohs: George Reisner and the Dawn of Modern Egyptology (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2023).</ref><ref>A. Spiekermann, "Steindorff und Mastaba G 2005" in Zur Zierde gereicht... Festschrift Bettina Schmitz zum 60. Geburtstag am 24. Juli 2008, Hildesheimer Ägyptologische Beiträge 50, A. Spiekermann, Ed. (Verlag Gebrüder Gerstenberg, Hildesheim, 2008), pp. 241–249.
</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Montague Ballard  |url=http://giza.fas.harvard.edu/modernpeople/467/full/ |access-date=2023-08-04 |website=Digital Giza |publisher=Giza Project at Harvard}}
</ref>
===Italian, German, and American Concessions at Giza===
In 1902, the Egyptian Antiquities Service under [[Gaston Maspero]] resolved to issue permits exclusively to authorized individuals representing public institutions.<ref>P. D. Manuelian, Walking Among Pharaohs: George Reisner and the Dawn of Modern Egyptology (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2023).
</ref> In November of that year, the Service awarded three scholars with concessions on the Giza Necropolis. They were the Italian [[Ernesto Schiaparelli]] from the Turin Museum, the German [[Georg Steindorff]] from the University of Leipzig who had funding from Wilhelm Pelizaeus, and the American [[George Andrew Reisner|George Reisner]] from the Hearst Expedition. Within a matter of months, the site had been divided between the concessionaires following a meeting at the Mena House Hotel involving Schiaparelli, [[Ludwig Borchardt]] (Steindorff's representative in Egypt), and Reisner.<ref>G. A. Reisner, A History of the Giza Necropolis. Volume I (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1942).</ref>
===Division of the West Field===
By the turn of the 20th century, the three largest pyramids on the Giza plateau were considered mostly exhausted by previous excavations, so the Western Cemetery and its collection of private mastaba tombs were thought to represent the richest unexcavated part of the plateau. George Reisner's wife, Mary, drew names from a hat to assign three long east-west plots of the necropolis among the Italian, German, and American missions. Schiaparelli was assigned the southernmost strip, Borchardt the center, and Reisner the northernmost.<ref>P. D. Manuelian, Walking Among Pharaohs: George Reisner and the Dawn of Modern Egyptology (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2023). </ref>
===Division of the Pyramids===
Rights to excavate the Pyramids were then also negotiated between Schiaparelli, Borchardt, and Reisner. Schiaparelli gained rights to excavate the Great Pyramid of Khufu along with its three associated queens' pyramids and most of its Eastern Cemetery. Borchardt received Khafre's pyramid, its causeway, the Sphinx, and the Sphinx's associated temples. Reisner claimed Menkaure's pyramid as well as its associated queens' pyramids and pyramid temple, along with a portion of Schiaparelli's Eastern Cemetery. Any future disputes were to be resolved by Inspector [[James Quibell]], as per a letter from Borchardt to Maspero.<ref>E. David, Gaston Maspero. Lettres d'Egypte. Correspondence avec Louise Maspero [1883–1914] (Editions du Seuil, Paris, 2003).</ref>
===Immediate Aftermath===
This arrangement lasted until 1905, when, under the supervision of Schiaparelli and Francesco Ballerini, the Italian excavations ceased at Giza. As the Italians were more interested in sites which might yield more papyri, they turned their concession of the southern strip of the Western Cemetery over to the Americans under Reisner.<ref>P. D. Manuelian, Walking Among Pharaohs: George Reisner and the Dawn of Modern Egyptology (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2023).</ref>
==Modern usage==
In 1978, the [[Grateful Dead]] played a series of concerts later released as ''[[Rocking the Cradle: Egypt 1978]]''. In 2007, Colombian singer [[Shakira]] performed at the complex to a crowd of approximately 100,000 people.<ref>{{cite web |author=H. A. R. |date=31 March 2007 |title=Shakira Rocks the Pyramids of Giza |url=http://waleg.com/archives/007464.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181231211945/http://waleg.com/archives/007464.html |archive-date=31 December 2018 |access-date=11 January 2022 |website=Waleg.com}}</ref> The complex was used for the final draw of the [[2019 Africa Cup of Nations]] and the [[2021 World Men's Handball Championship]].
Egypt's [[Ministry of Tourism (Egypt)|Minister of Tourism]] unveiled plans for a {{Currency|17000000|EUR}} revamp of the complex by the end of 2021, in order to boost [[tourism in Egypt]] as well as make the site more accessible and tourist-friendly.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Sanders|first=Laura|date=2021-01-07|title=Egypt's Giza Pyramids are getting a revamp to boost tourism|url=https://www.euronews.com/travel/2021/01/07/egypt-s-giza-pyramids-are-getting-a-revamp-to-boost-tourism|access-date=2021-03-19|website=euronews|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-02-05|title=Egypt to build first restaurant serving tourists at Great Pyramids of Giza: Minister|url=https://egyptindependent.com/egypt-to-build-first-restaurant-serving-tourists-at-great-pyramids-of-giza-minister/|access-date=2021-03-19|website=Egypt Independent|language=en-US}}</ref> According to [[Lonely Planet]], the refurbishment includes a new visitors' centre, an environmentally-friendly electric bus, a restaurant (the 9 Pyramids Lounge),<ref>{{cite web |title=9 Pyramids Lounge: Everything to know about Egypt's First Restaurant At Giza Pyramids |url=https://www.el-shai.com/9-pyramids-lounge-egypt-restaurant-giza-pyramids/ |website=El-Shai |date=21 October 2020 |access-date=24 April 2021}}</ref> as well as a cinema, public toilets, site-wide signage, food trucks, photo booths, and free Wi-Fi.<ref>{{Cite web|title=New cafe at the Pyramids of Giza to open soon as part of revamp|url=https://www.lonelyplanet.com/articles/pyramids-of-giza-revamp|access-date=2021-03-19|website=Lonely Planet|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-07-28|title=In Photos: A Look At the First Restaurant Near Giza Pyramids {{!}} Egyptian Streets|url=https://egyptianstreets.com/2020/07/28/in-photos-a-look-at-the-first-restaurant-near-giza-pyramids/|access-date=2021-03-19|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-10-27|title=The Pyramids of Giza Are Getting a New Cafe, Lounge, and Visitor's Center by 2021|url=https://scoopempire.com/the-pyramids-of-giza-are-getting-a-new-cafe-lounge-and-visitors-center-by-2021/|access-date=2021-03-19|website=Scoop Empire|language=en-US}}</ref> The new facility is part of a [[Egypt Vision 2030|wider plan]] to renovate the 4,500 year old site.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pyramids of Giza Is Getting a New Visitors Center Complete With a Lounge, Cinema, and More|url=https://www.travelandleisure.com/attractions/landmarks-monuments/pyramids-of-giza-new-visitors-center|access-date=2021-03-19|website=Travel + Leisure|language=en}}</ref>
==See also==
{{Portal|Ancient Egypt|Architecture}}
* [[Egyptian pyramids]]
* [[List of Egyptian pyramids]]
* [[List of largest monoliths]], includes section on calculating weight of megaliths
* [[Outline of Egypt]]


==References==
==References==
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{{Memphis Necropolis}}
{{Memphis Necropolis}}
{{World Heritage Sites in Egypt}}
 
{{Giza}}


{{authority control}}
{{authority control}}

Latest revision as of 01:36, 28 December 2023

Giza pyramid complex
Pyramids of the Giza Necropolis.jpg
The three main pyramids at Giza, together with subsidiary pyramids and the remains of other structures
Giza pyramid complex is located in Egypt
Giza pyramid complex
Shown within Egypt
LocationGiza, Greater Cairo, Egypt
RegionMiddle Egypt
Coordinates29°58′34″N 31°7′58″E / 29.97611°N 31.13278°E / 29.97611; 31.13278
TypeMonument
History
PeriodsEarly Dynastic Period to Late Period
Site notes
Website
Part of"Pyramid fields from Giza to Dahshur" part of Memphis and its Necropolis – the Pyramid Fields from Giza to Dahshur
Includes
CriteriaCultural: i, iii, vi
Reference86-002
Inscription1979 (3rd Session)
Area16,203.36 ha (162.0336 km2; 62.5615 sq mi)

The Giza pyramid complex (also called the Giza necropolis) in Egypt is home to the Great Pyramid, the Pyramid of Khafre, and the Pyramid of Menkaure, along with their associated pyramid complexes and the Great Sphinx. All were built during the Fourth Dynasty of the Old Kingdom of ancient Egypt, between c. 2600 – c. 2500 BC. The site also includes several temples, cemeteries, and the remains of a workers' village.

The site is at the edge of the Western Desert, approximately 9 km (5.6 mi) west of the Nile River in the city of Giza, and about 13 km (8.1 mi) southwest of the city centre of Cairo. It forms the northernmost part of the 16,000 ha (160 km2; 62 sq mi) Pyramid Fields of the Memphis and its Necropolis.

Many books and articles written by Egyptologists who worked at the site are freely available on the Digital Giza website.

Maadi settlements

The earliest settlement of the Giza plateau predates the pyramid complexes. Four jars from the Maadi culture were found at the foot of the Great Pyramid, likely from a disturbed earlier settlement.[1] Further Maadi settlement near the site was uncovered during work on the Greater Cairo Wastewater Project.[2] Recent reassessment of the radiocarbon dating puts the Maadi culture's Maadi|eponymous settlement to c. 3800 – c. 3400 BC, which is also the likely maximum possible range for the Giza remains.[3]

Pyramids and Sphinx

Giza pyramid complex (map)
Aerial view from north of cultivated Nile valley with the pyramids in the background (1938)
Pyramids of Ghizeh. 1893. Egypt; heliogravure after original views. Wilbour Library of Egyptology. Brooklyn Museum
The Great Pyramid and the Great Sphinx of Giza in 1914 (Autochrome Lumière)
The complex in 1955
View from top of the Great Pyramid to the Pyramid of Khafre

The Giza pyramid complex consists of the Great Pyramid (also known as the Pyramid of Cheops or Khufu and constructed c. 2580 – c. 2560 BC), the somewhat smaller Pyramid of Khafre (or Chephren) a few hundred metres to the south-west, and the relatively modest-sized Pyramid of Menkaure (or Mykerinos) a few hundred metres farther south-west. The Great Sphinx lies on the east side of the complex. Consensus among Egyptologists is that the head of the Great Sphinx is that of Khafre. Along with these major monuments are a number of smaller satellite edifices, known as "queens" pyramids, causeways, and temples.[4]

Khufu's complex

Main article: Great Pyramid of Giza

Khufu's pyramid complex consists of a valley temple, now buried beneath the village of Nazlet el-Samman; diabase paving and nummulitic limestone walls have been found but the site has not been excavated.[5][6] The valley temple was connected to a causeway that was largely destroyed when the village was constructed. The causeway led to the Mortuary Temple of Khufu, which was connected to the pyramid. Of this temple, the basalt pavement is the only thing that remains. The king's pyramid has three smaller queen's pyramids associated with it and three boat pits.[7]: 11–19  The boat pits contained a ship, and the two pits on the south side of the pyramid contained intact ships when excavated. One of these ships, the Khufu ship, has been restored and was originally displayed at the Giza Solar boat museum, then subsequently moved to the Grand Egyptian Museum.[8][9]

Khufu's pyramid still has a limited number of casing stones at its base. These casing stones were made of fine white limestone quarried from the nearby range.[4]

Khafre's complex

Main articles: Pyramid of Khafre and Great Sphinx of Giza

Khafre's pyramid complex consists of a valley temple, the Sphinx temple, a causeway, a mortuary temple, and the king's pyramid. The valley temple yielded several statues of Khafre. Several were found in a well in the floor of the temple by Mariette in 1860. Others were found during successive excavations by Sieglin (1909–1910), Junker, Reisner, and Hassan. Khafre's complex contained five boat-pits and a subsidiary pyramid with a serdab.[7]: 19–26 

Khafre's pyramid appears larger than the adjacent Khufu Pyramid by virtue of its more elevated location, and the steeper angle of inclination of its construction—it is, in fact, smaller in both height and volume. Khafre's pyramid retains a prominent display of casing stones at its apex.[4]

Menkaure's complex

Main article: Pyramid of Menkaure

Menkaure's pyramid complex consists of a valley temple, a causeway, a mortuary temple, and the king's pyramid. The valley temple once contained several statues of Menkaure. During the 5th Dynasty, a smaller ante-temple was added on to the valley temple. The mortuary temple also yielded several statues of Menkaure. The king's pyramid, completed c. 2510 BC, has three subsidiary or queen's pyramids.[7]: 26–35  Of the four major monuments, only Menkaure's pyramid is seen today without any of its original polished limestone casing.[4]

Sphinx

The Sphinx partially excavated, photo taken between 1867 and 1899
Main article: Great Sphinx of Giza

The Sphinx dates from the reign of king Khafre.[10] During the New Kingdom, Amenhotep II dedicated a new temple to Hauron-Haremakhet and this structure was added onto by later rulers.[7]: 39–40 

Tomb of Queen Khentkaus I

Main article: Pyramid of Khentkaus I

Khentkaus I was buried in Giza. Her tomb is known as LG 100 and G 8400 and is located in the Central Field, near the valley temple of Menkaure. The pyramid complex of Queen Khentkaus includes her pyramid, a boat pit, a valley temple, and a pyramid town.[7]: 288–289 

Workers' village

One face of the Pyramid of Khafre at Giza, as seen from Khafre's valley temple
Giza pyramid complex seen from above

The work of quarrying, moving, setting, and sculpting the huge amount of stone used to build the pyramids might have been accomplished by several thousand skilled workers, unskilled laborers and supporting workers. Bakers, carpenters, water carriers, and others were also needed for the project. Along with the methods used to construct the pyramids, there is also wide speculation regarding the exact number of workers needed for a building project of this magnitude. When Greek historian Herodotus visited Giza in 450 BC, he was told by Egyptian priests that "the Great Pyramid had taken 400,000 men 20 years to build, working in three-month shifts 100,000 men at a time." Evidence from the tombs indicates that a workforce of 10,000 laborers working in three-month shifts took around 30 years to build a pyramid.[4]

The Giza pyramid complex is surrounded by a large stone wall, outside which Mark Lehner and his team discovered a town where the pyramid workers were housed. The village is located to the southeast of the Khafre and Menkaure complexes. Among the discoveries at the workers' village are communal sleeping quarters, bakeries, breweries, and kitchens (with evidence showing that bread, beef, and fish were dietary staples), a copper workshop, a hospital, and a cemetery (where some of the skeletons were found with signs of trauma associated with accidents on a building site).[11] The metal processed at the site was the so-called arsenical copper.[12] The same material was also identified among the copper artefacts from the "Kromer" site, from the reigns of Khufu and Khafre.[13]

The workers' town appears to date from the middle 4th Dynasty (2520–2472 BC), after the accepted time of Khufu and completion of the Great Pyramid. According to Lehner and the AERA team:

The development of this urban complex must have been rapid. All of the construction probably happened in the 35 to 50 years that spanned the reigns of Khafre and Menkaure, builders of the Second and Third Giza Pyramids.

Using pottery shards, seal impressions, and stratigraphy to date the site, the team further concludes:

The picture that emerges is that of a planned settlement, some of the world's earliest urban planning, securely dated to the reigns of two Giza pyramid builders: Khafre (2520–2494 BC) and Menkaure (2490–2472 BC).[14][15]

Radiocarbon data for the Old Kingdom Giza plateau and the workers' settlement were published in 2006,[16] and then re-evaluated in 2011.[17]

Cemeteries

As the pyramids were constructed, the mastabas for lesser royals were constructed around them. Near the pyramid of Khufu, the main cemetery is G 7000, which lies in the East Field located to the east of the main pyramid and next to the Queen's pyramids. These cemeteries around the pyramids were arranged along streets and avenues.[18] Cemetery G 7000 was one of the earliest and contained tombs of wives, sons, and daughters of these 4th Dynasty rulers. On the other side of the pyramid in the West Field, the royals' sons Wepemnofret and Hemiunu were buried in Cemetery G 1200 and Cemetery G 4000, respectively. These cemeteries were further expanded during the 5th and 6th Dynasties.[7]

West Field

The West Field is located to the west of Khufu's pyramid. It is divided into smaller areas such as the cemeteries referred to as the Abu Bakr Excavations (1949–1950, 1950–1951, 1952, and 1953), and several cemeteries named based on the mastaba numbers such as Cemetery G 1000, Cemetery G 1100, etc. The West Field contains Cemetery G1000 – Cemetery G1600, and Cemetery G 1900. Further cemeteries in this field are: Cemeteries G 2000, G 2200, G 2500, G 3000, G 4000, and G 6000. Three other cemeteries are named after their excavators: Junker Cemetery West, Junker Cemetery East, and Steindorff Cemetery.[7]: 100–122 

East Field

The East Field is located to the east of Khufu's pyramid and contains cemetery G 7000. This cemetery was a burial place for some of the family members of Khufu. The cemetery also includes mastabas from tenants and priests of the pyramids dated to the 5th Dynasty and 6th Dynasty.[7]: 179–216 

Cemetery GIS

This cemetery dates from the time of Menkaure (Junker) or earlier (Reisner), and contains several stone-built mastabas dating from as late as the 6th Dynasty. Tombs from the time of Menkaure include the mastabas of the royal chamberlain Khaemnefert, the King's son Khufudjedef (master of the royal largesse), and an official named Niankhre.[7]: 216–228 

Central Field

The Central Field contains several burials of royal family members. The tombs range in date from the end of the 4th Dynasty to the 5th Dynasty or even later.[7]: 230–293 

Tombs dating from the Saite and later period were found near the causeway of Khafre and the Great Sphinx. These tombs include the tomb of a commander of the army named Ahmose and his mother Queen Nakhtubasterau, who was the wife of Pharaoh Amasis II.[7]: 289–290 

South Field

The South Field includes mastabas dating from the 1st Dynasty to 3rd Dynasty as well as later burials.[19] Of the more significant of these early dynastic tombs are one referred to as "Covington's tomb", otherwise known as Mastaba T, and the large Mastaba V which contained artifacts naming the 1st Dynasty pharaoh Djet.[20][19] Other tombs date from the late Old Kingdom (5th and 6th Dynasty). The south section of the field contains several tombs dating from the Saite period and later.[7]: 294–297 

Tombs of the pyramid builders

In 1990, tombs belonging to the pyramid workers were discovered alongside the pyramids, with an additional burial site found nearby in 2009. Although not mummified, they had been buried in mudbrick tombs with beer and bread to support them in the afterlife. The tombs' proximity to the pyramids and the manner of burial supports the theory that they were paid laborers who took pride in their work and were not slaves, as was previously thought. Evidence from the tombs indicates that a workforce of 10,000 laborers working in three-month shifts took around 30 years to build a pyramid. Most of the workers appear to have come from poor families. Specialists such as architects, masons, metalworkers, and carpenters were permanently employed by the king to fill positions that required the most skill.[21][22][23][24]

Shafts

There are multiple burial-shafts and various unfinished shafts and tunnels located in the Giza complex that were discovered and mentioned prominently by Selim Hassan in his report Excavations at Giza 1933–1934.[25] He states: "Very few of the Saitic [referring to the Saite Period][26] shafts have been thoroughly examined, for the reason that most of them are flooded."[25]: 193 

Osiris Shaft

The Osiris Shaft is a narrow burial-shaft leading to three levels for a tomb and below it a flooded area.[27] It was first mentioned by Hassan, and a thorough excavation was conducted by a team led by Hawass in 1999.[28] It was opened to tourists in November 2017.[29]

New Kingdom and Late Period

The Dream Stele between the Sphinx's front legs

During the New Kingdom Giza was still an active site. A brick-built chapel was constructed near the Sphinx during the early 18th Dynasty, probably by King Thutmose I. Amenhotep II built a temple dedicated to Hauron-Haremakhet near the Sphinx. As a prince, the future pharaoh Thutmose IV visited the pyramids and the Sphinx; he reported being told in a dream that if he cleared the sand that had built up around the Sphinx, he would be rewarded with kingship. This event is recorded in the Dream Stele, which he had installed between the Sphinx's front legs.

During the early years of his reign, Thutmose IV, together with his wife Queen Nefertari, had stelae erected at Giza.

Pharaoh Tutankhamun had a structure built, which is now referred to as the king's resthouse.

During the 19th Dynasty, Seti I added to the temple of Hauron-Haremakhet, and his son Ramesses II erected a stela in the chapel before the Sphinx and usurped the resthouse of Tutankhamun.[7]: 39–47 

During the 21st Dynasty, the Temple of Isis Mistress-of-the-Pyramids was reconstructed. During the 26th Dynasty, a stela made in this time mentions Khufu and his Queen Henutsen.[7]: 18 

References

  1. ↑ Bard, Kathryn A. (1994). "The Egyptian Predynastic: A Review of the Evidence". Journal of Field Archaeology. 21 (3): 265–288. doi:10.1179/009346994791547553. ISSN 0093-4690.
  2. ↑ Sanussi, Ashraf el-; Jones, Michael (1997). "A site of the Maadi culture near the Giza pyramids". Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Abteilung Kairo. 53: 241–253. S2CID 192152723.
  3. ↑ Bajeot, Jade (2017). Predynastic Maadi in context: the research of the Italian expedition revisited (1977–1986). Studi di preistoria orientale. Rome: Dipartimento di scienze dell'antichità, Sapienza Università di Roma. ISBN 978-88-904240-2-1.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Verner, Miroslav. The Pyramids: The Mystery, Culture, and Science of Egypt's Great Monuments. Grove Press. 2001 (1997). ISBN 0-8021-3935-3
  5. ↑ Shafer, Byron E.; Arnold, Dieter (2005). Temples of Ancient Egypt. I.B. Tauris. pp. 51–52. ISBN 978-1-85043-945-5.
  6. ↑ Arnold, Dieter; Strudwick, Nigel; Strudwick, Helen (2002). The encyclopaedia of ancient Egyptian architecture. I.B. Tauris. p. 126. ISBN 978-1-86064-465-8.
  7. ↑ 7.00 7.01 7.02 7.03 7.04 7.05 7.06 7.07 7.08 7.09 7.10 7.11 7.12 7.13 Porter, Bertha and Moss, Rosalind L. B. Topographical Bibliography of Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphic Texts, Reliefs, and Paintings. Volume III. Memphis. Part I. Abû Rawâsh to Abûṣîr. 2nd edition, revised and augmented by Jaromír Málek, The Clarendon Press, Oxford 1974. PDF from The Giza Archives, 29,5 MB Retrieved 10 February 2017.
  8. ↑ "A team from the Grand Egyptian Museum succeeded in the first trial run conducted to test the vehicles that will be used in the transferring the first Khufu Solar Boat from its current location". Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities. 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2022.
  9. ↑ "In pictures: Egypt pharaoh's 'solar boat' moved to Giza museum". BBC News. 7 August 2021. Retrieved 7 August 2021.
  10. ↑ "Riddle of the Sphinx". Documentary Storm. 23 December 2009. Retrieved 4 August 2023.
  11. ↑ Lehner, Mark (2002). "The Pyramid Age Settlement of the Southern Mount at Giza". Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt. 39: 27–74. doi:10.2307/40001149. JSTOR 40001149.
  12. ↑ Odler, Martin; Kmošek, Jiří (2019). "Copper at Giza: the Latest News" (PDF). Aeragram. 20 (2): 12–17.
  13. ↑ Odler, Martin; Kmošek, Jiří; Fikrle, Marek; Erban Kochergina, Yulia V. (2021). "Arsenical copper tools of Old Kingdom Giza craftsmen: First data". Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports. 36: 102868. Bibcode:2021JArSR..36j2868O. doi:10.1016/j.jasrep.2021.102868. S2CID 233577883 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  14. ↑ "Egyptian Pyramids – Lost City of the Pyramid Builders – AERA – Ancient Egypt Research Associates". aeraweb.org. 10 September 2009.
  15. ↑ Lehner, Mark (14 October 2009). "Dating the Lost City of the Pyramids". aeraweb.org. Ancient Egypt Research Associates.
  16. ↑ Bonani, Georges; Haas, Herbert; Hawass, Zahi; Lehner, Mark; Nakhla, Shawki; Nolan, John; Wenke, Robert; Wölfli, Willy (2001). "Radiocarbon Dates of Old and Middle Kingdom Monuments in Egypt". Radiocarbon. 43 (3): 1297–1320. Bibcode:2001Radcb..43.1297B. doi:10.1017/S0033822200038558. ISSN 0033-8222.
  17. ↑ Dee, M. W.; Bronk Ramsey, C.; Shortland, A. J.; Higham, T. F. G.; Rowland, J. M. (2009). "Reanalysis of the Chronological Discrepancies Obtained by the Old and Middle Kingdom Monuments Project". Radiocarbon. 51 (3): 1061–1070. Bibcode:2009Radcb..51.1061D. doi:10.1017/S0033822200034111. ISSN 0033-8222.
  18. ↑ Lehner, Mark, "The Complete Pyramids", Thames & Hudson, 1997. ISBN 0-500-05084-8.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Petrie, W. M. Flinders; et al. (1907). Gizeh and Rifeh (PDF). London: School of Archaeology in Egypt. pp. 2–8. Retrieved 4 April 2019.
  20. ↑ Flentye, Laurel (March 2018). "The Art and Archaeology of the Giza Plateau". Online Only – Archaeology. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935413.013.29. ISBN 978-0-19-993541-3.
  21. ↑ "Who Built the Pyramids?". Explore the pyramids. Archived from the original on 16 September 2002. Retrieved 27 August 2010.
  22. ↑ "The Discovery of the Tombs of the Pyramid Builders at Giza: Dr. Zahi Hawass". guardians.net. Retrieved 4 August 2023.
  23. ↑ The Cemetery of the Pyramid Builders Archived 15 September 2010 at the Wayback Machine by Zahi Hawass
  24. ↑ Cooney, Kathlyn (2007). "Labour". In Wilkinson, Toby (ed.). The Egyptian World. Routledge.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 "Digital Giza | Excavations at Gîza 5: 1933–1934". giza.fas.harvard.edu. Retrieved 24 October 2019.
  26. ↑ Carolinarh (29 April 2013). "Saitic Period". ArS Artistic Adventure of Mankind. Retrieved 24 October 2019.
  27. ↑ "Pyramids of Giza (pyramids, Egypt)". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 24 October 2019.
  28. ↑ Kmtsesh (18 February 2012). "The Osiris Shaft: a Giza cenotaph". Ancient Near East: Just the Facts. Retrieved 24 October 2019.
  29. ↑ First Time Exploring The Astonishing Osiris Shaft on the Giza Plateau, archived from the original on 13 December 2021, retrieved 24 October 2019

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